1
The fact that development often involves continuities speaks to the fact that over time humans tend to
remain the same
2
Albert, a developmental psychologist, conducts research on children's emotional reactions to studying math in school. Albert is concerned with children's ____ development.
psychosocial
3
Key aspects of motor development:
- change in motor ability
- change in body organ efficiency
- change in skin tone
4
A defined age group in a society is called an age
grade.
5
Maturation is to learning as
genes are to social experience.
6
Urie Bronfenbrenner is BEST associated with the ____ model of development.
Bioecological.
7
The PRIMARY advantage of the experimental design over other research methods is that only it can be used to
uncover cause-effect relationships.
8
John Locke believed that human nature was
determined by a person's experiences
9
Learning thought to become more or less probable depending on consequences it produces (Skinner)
operant conditioning
10
Consequences that strengthen a response (increase probability of future response) (Skinner)
Reinforcement
11
something pleasant added in attempt to strengthen behavior, best when continuous and when skill first being learned (Skinner)
Positive Reinforcement
12
something unpleasant taken in attempt to strengthen behavior
Negative reinforcement
13
consequences that suppress future response
punishment
14
something unpleasant added in attempt to weaken behavior
positive punishment
15
something pleasant taken in attempt to weaken behavior
negative punishment
16
no consequence given and behavior becomes less frequent
extinction
17
emphasized positive reinforcement in child rearing
Skinner
18
Involves systematic continuities and changes from conception to death
Development
19
Three domains of development:
- physical
- cognitive
- social
20
changes in size and shape from conception to maturity
growth
21
positive and negative changes in maturing organism
aging
22
biological unfolding of plan contained in genes
maturation (nature)
23
external physical and social conditions
environment (nurture)
24
______ is an interplay between nature and nurture
Development
25
Periods of the lifespan:
- prenatal (birth), infancy (talking)
- childhood (preschool/ middle)
- adolescence (early, middle, late)
- adulthood (early, middle, late)
26
status, roles, privileges, and responsibilities based on age group
age grades
27
expectations based on age grades
age norms
28
sense of timing for life transitions
social clock
29
Considered founder of Psychology, had first laboratory in 1879
Wilhelm Wundt
30
Wrote "Elemente der Psychophysik (1860), "stimuli give rise to perceptions according to mathematical laws" Weber-______ Law.
Gustav Fechner
31
Started baby biographies, observed his own children, not systematic observations, late 19th century
Charles Darwin
32
Began very systematic observations, started the case study method, 1920's
Jean Piaget
33
First president of American Psychological Association
G. Stanley Hall
34
Types of Research Methods:
- Systematic Observation
- Measurement
- Theory vs. Hypothesis
- Operationalization
- Falsification
35
Three major methods of data collection:
- Verbal reports
- Behavioral observations
*Naturalistic
*Structured
- Physiological
36
_________ is the search for the relationship between variables
Research
37
Characteristics of Experimental Studies:
- establish that the IV is the cause of the DV
- causal explanations require experimentation and internal validity
- eliminate threats
38
Characteristics of Correlational Designs:
- does not imply causation
- patterns of correlation CAN imply causation
39
_________ study different age groups measured at the same time. provides information about age differences.
cross-sectional designs
40
_________ studies same group measured repeatedly, provides information on age changes.
Longitudinal Design
41
Cross Sectional Design, Strengths and Weaknesses:
- can determine cohort differences in behavior
- age effects and cohort effects are confounded
- relatively quick and inexpensive to conduct
- no information about development of individuals
42
Longitudinal Design, Strengths and Weaknesses:
- can indicate individual changes in behavior
- can show relationships between early and later behavior
- centers on only one cohort group
- age effects and time of measurement effects are confounded
- method is costly and time-consuming
- measures may become dated
- loss of participants
- participants can be affected by repeated testing
43
combine cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches, can untangle age effects, time of measurement effects, and cohort effects, method is extremely costly and complex
sequentail design
44
Qualities of a good theory:
- reflects the real world of humans
- supported by empirical evidence
- explain past results and makes predictions about future outcomes
- can handle new data and discoveries
- stimulate new research ideas and directions
- understandable, parsimonious, and internally consistent
- falsifiable
45
Six major theories of development:
- Psychoanalytic: Freud, Erikson
- Learning: Skinner, Bandura
- Cognitive Developmental: Piaget, Vygotski
- Ethological: Lorenz, Gottileb
- Social Attachment: Bowlby, Ainsworth
- Systems Theories: Werner, Brofenbrenner
46
prevailing way of looking at reality - bias about human nature
world view
47
English academic/ philosopher, children are selfish and bad, and society must teach them to behave in a civilized way
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
48
English academic/ philosopher/ doctor/ empiricist - everything through the senses, tabula rosa, children born neutral - become what we make them
John Locke (1632-1714)
49
________ World View: Passive and react to stimuli, form a copy of reality based on experience - learning is reacting and trying to copy, reductionisit - fix/ break apart, focus on individual differences
Mechanistic
50
Swiss philosopher, natural state of humans is good, inborn capabilities lead to optimal developemental path, society (parents, educators, religious leaders, government) get in the way. children are little organisms, ready to flourish.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
51
________ World View: humans not passive nor reactive but active organisms, self motivated to grow and develop - seek change, reality is not copied, but constructed, not reductionist - but holistic - whole greater than sum of parts.
Organismic
52
Viennese Physician and founder of Psychoanalytic theory. considered both a product of and a person beyond his time. Lasting contributions: emphasis on humans being driven by motive and emotions of which we are unaware, belief that we are shaped by earliest experiences in life.
Sigmund Freud
53
Libido expressed through two main channels:
-__________ - survival, sexual pleasure and reproduction.
-__________ - static equilibrium, resulting in death, postulated this after seeing so much self- and other destruction.
Eros & Thanatos
54
Behavior and Development (Freud) - _________ model
drive reduction
55
__________ - energy - ___________
libido, drive
56
Components of Personality:
id, ego, superego
57
all psychic energy contained here, seeks immediate gratification (pleasure principle)
Id
58
realistic ways to gratify instincts (reality principle)
Ego
59
adhere to moral standards (perfection principle)
Superego
60
Stages of Psychosexual Development (Freud):
Oral, Anal, Phallic Stage, Latency Period, Genital Stage.
61
Psychic energy needs gratification
oral stage
62
Oedipus and Electra stages begin to form
Anal stage
63
Oedipus and Electra complexes resolve
Phallic Stage
64
Development can become _________.
Fixated
65
Strengths and Weaknesses of Psychoanalytic Theory:
- Difficult to test and ambiguous (not easily falsifiable.
- Weak support for specific aspects of the theory
- Greater but limited empirical support for broad ideas
*unconscious processes underlying behavior
*importance of early experience and role of emotion in development
66
Important disciples of Psychoanalytic Theory
Neo-Freudians
67
Notable Neo-Freudians
Jung, Horney, Sullivan, Anna Freud
68
_________ is the most important lifespan neo-Freudian theorist
Erikson
69
- Less empahasis on sexual and more on social influences
- Less emphasis on irrational id, more on rational ego
- More emphasis on development after adolescence
Erikson's differences with Freud
70
- Trust vs. Mistrust
- Autonomy vs. Shame
- Initiative vs. Guilt
- Industry vs. Inferiority
Erikson Stages (Part One)
71
key is general responsiveness of caregiver
Trust vs. Mistrust
72
"terrible twos" considered part of this stage
Autonomy vs. Shame
73
- Identity vs. Role Confusion
- Intimacy vs. Isolation
- Generativity vs. Stagnation
- Integrity vs. Despair
Erikson Stages (Part Two)
74
adolescence acquisition of identity
Identity vs. Role Confusion
75
Young adult commitment
Intimacy vs. Isolation
76
middle age sense of having produced something meaningful
Generativity vs. Stagnation
77
elderly sense of life meaning and success
Integrity vs. Despair
78
_________ believed that personality was NOT "set in stone" during the first five years of life.
Erikson
79
_________ believed stage development was due to biological maturation and environmental demands.
Eriskon
80
Founder of the Cognitive Developmental Theory. Swiss Scholar. First scientific work at age 10. blended interest in zoology and philosophy - influenced by Charles Darwin. Emphasizes errors in thinking (wrong answers). Work was unknown in the US until writings were translated to English by John Flavell
Jean Piaget
81
active construction of knowledge based on experience.
constructivism
82
- Everything we see, hear is filtered through our "frame of reference". We construct our knowledge out of what we already know.
- drive for cognitive equilibrium
Mechanisms of Development
83
basic unit of stored knowledge
scheme/ schemata
84
processing and adding new things using our current schemes - what we know.
Assimilation
85
Sensorimotor Stage, Preoperational Stage, Concrete Operations Stage, Formal Operations Stage.
Stages of Cognitive Development
86
ranges from birth to age two. deal with world directly through perceptions and actions. unable to use symbols to help solve problems mentally.
Sensorimotor Stage
87
preschool age. capacity for symbolic thought arises. lack tools of logical thought. cling to ideas they want to be true.
Preoperational Stage
88
school-age. use trial-and-error strategy. perform mental operations in their heads. difficulty with abstract and hypothetical concepts.
Concrete Operations Stage
89
adolescents. can understand abstract concepts. can think abstractly and can formulate hypotheses. can devise "grand theories" about others.
Formal Operations Stage
90
Formed the Cognitive Mediation Theory. Born the same year as Piaget. Russian Psychologist who took issue with Piaget. very well read and educated in western philosophy. attended moscow university. his work was banned in Russia and completely unavailable to the west until the early 1970's.
Lev Vygotsky
91
According to Vygotsky, the child is a(n) __________, and development is a(n) _________.
Apprentice, apprenticeship.
92
Tools are "functions" that develop because of cultural impact development. Culture, especially in the form of language, shapes behavior and thinking. society helps shape and regulate the mind to further develop.
Cognitive Mediation
93
Learning theories
Everything is learned through experience. Reinforcement. Learning is gradual, so is development.
94
Known for Classical Conditioning. Rejected Psychoanalytic theory and explained Freud using learning principles. Rejects stage conceptualization of development. Believes children have no inborn tendencies, use environment determines which way they grow up.
Watson
95
belief that only observed behavior should be studied
behaviorism
96
Known for Operant Conditioning. emphasized positive reinforcement in child rearing.
B. F. Skinner
97
learning thought to become more or less probable depending on consequences it produces.
Operant Conditioning
98
consequences that strengthen a response (increase probability of future response)
Reinforcement
99
something pleasant added in attempt to strengthen behavior, best when continuous and when skill first being learned.
positive reinforcement
100
something unpleasant taken in attempt to strengthen behavior.
negative reinforcement
101
consequences that suppress future response
punishment
102
something unpleasant added in attempt to weaken behavior.
positive punishment
103
something pleasant taken in attempt to weaken behavior
negative punishment
104
no consequence given and behavior becomes less frequent
extinction
105
known for the social learning (cognitive) theory. believed humans' cognitive abilities distinguish them from other animals. observational learning is the most important mechanism for behavior change.
Albert Bandura
106
ways in which humans deliberately exercise control over environments and lives
human agency
107
sense of one's ability to control self or environment
self-efficacy
108
mutual influence of individuals and social environments determines behavior
reciprocal determinism
109
known for Organismic theory, also known for distancing. argued it solved the continuity/ discontinuity as both it is a synthesis of two opposing trends.
Heinz Werner
110
known for the ethological theory. major concepts: complex action patterns, adaptive importance, and evolutionarily significance. demonstrated imprinting and critical periods.
Konrad Lorenz
111
species specific behaviors have fixed action patterns. species specific behaviors (instincts) have specific releasing mechanisms (stimuli)
Ethological Theories
112
Critical to development is the formation of attachments to others.
attachment theory
113
Changes over life span arise from ongoing transactions and mutual influences between organism and changing world, no single end-point to development.
Systems Theories
114
Systems Perspectives:
- Brofenbrenner's Evolutionary Theory: individuals embedded in four environments
- Gottileb's Evolutionary Theory: development viewed in context of evolutionary history and interaction between individual and environment
115
-Influenced by Darwin's work
- Focus on how genes aid in adapting to the environment
Gottileb's Perspective
116
-Development product of interacting between biological and environmental forces in a larger system
-evolution has endowed us with genes
-predisposition to develop in certain direction
-genes don't dictate what happens in development
Epigenetic Psychobiological Systems Perspective
117
process through which genes and environment jointly bring forth particular course of development
epigenetic principle
118
normal species-specific environment contributes to normal patterns of development, instinctive behaviors may not be expressed if environmental conditions do not exist, genes do not determine anything, just partner with environment to influence behavior
Systems theories
